The lavish lifestyles of the Romans had resulted in the complete deterioration of the society's fitness level. The barbaric tribes from Northern Europe possessed similar characteristics to primitive people.
Their lifestyle consisted of hunting and gathering food, and tending to cattle Physical activity and fitness were prerequisites for survival.
Therefore, despite the cultural setbacks that occurred with the fall of the Roman Empire, fitness experienced a revival during the Dark and Middle Ages. The Renaissance Following the Dark and Middle Ages, the rebirth of cultural learning from the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations gave rise to the Renaissance.
Accompanying this time period was a renewed interest in the human body. Once again, the ancient Greek ideals, which glorified the human body, gained widespread acceptance. Many individuals, including Martin Luther religious leader , John Locke philosopher , Vittorino da Feltra, John Comenius, and Richard Mulcaster physical educators maintained that high fitness levels enhanced intellectual learning 13, Civilizations that recognized the importance of fitness needed an avenue to convey this knowledge to their people.
Therefore, fitness and physical education share a common bond. Physical education became the tool used to spread the value and benefits of fitness throughout society. School programs, primarily in ancient Greece, had previously recognized the necessity for curriculums involving physical education.
The renewed appreciation for human life, which evolved during the Renaissance, created an environment which was ready for the widespread development of physical education throughout Europe.
National Period in Europe Continental Europe underwent numerous cultural changes following the Renaissance. Fitness remained important and continued to follow trends initiated during the Renaissance. Physical education programs expanded within emerging nations of Europe. Intense feelings for nationalism and independence created the atmosphere for the first modern fitness movement, which came in the form of gymnastics programs. Gymnastics enjoyed immense popularity during this era, becoming especially prevalent in Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and Great Britain.
Germany The growth of gymnastics in Germany can be primarily attributed to the work of two physical educators: Johann Guts Muths and Friedrich Jahn.
Guts Muths is generally referred to as the "Grandfather of German Gymnastics. His lifetime works and achievements are found in two books - Gymnastics for the Young and Games. Friedrich Jahn earned the title of "Father of German Gymnastics" for his long-lived work.
It was early during Jahn's lifetime that Napoleon conquered much of Europe, including Germany. With its downfall to France, Germany was subsequently divided into separate states.
Jahn's passion for German nationalism and independence became the driving force behind his creation of gymnastic programs. He believed future susceptibility to foreign invasion could be prevented through physical development of the German people. Shortly thereafter, exercise facilities that housed apparatuses designed for running, jumping, balancing, climbing, and vaulting called Turnvereins developed throughout Germany 4. Sweden Per Henrik Ling developed and introduced his own gymnastics program to Sweden which consisted of three different areas: 1 educational gymnastics, 2 military gymnastics, and 3 medical gymnastics.
Ling, who had a strong medical background, recognized that exercise was necessary for all persons. He maintained that exercise programs should be devised based on individual differences. Ling also believed physical educators must possess knowledge of the effects of exercise on the human body. Ling used science and physiology to better understand the importance of fitness 4. Denmark Frank Nachtegall, who initially started teaching out of his home, introduced and helped popularize gymnastic programs throughout Denmark.
He was especially concerned with development of gymnastic programs within school systems. Eventually he taught in a private facility, which was devoted entirely to physical training and later became director of a program designed to prepare future fitness instructors called Training Teachers of Gymnastics 4.
England Within Great Britain, medical student Archibald Maclaren spread the word on the benefits of fitness and regular exercise. Marclaren, like Per Henrik Ling of Sweden, was fascinated in the scientific components of fitness.
Marclaren made several observations based on his work, which are remarkably similar to present-day exercise recommendations.
Firstly, Marclaren believed the cure for weariness and stress was physical action. Secondly, he noted recreational exercise found in games and sport was not sufficient for attaining adequate fitness levels. Finally, Marclaren realized both growing boys and girls required regular physical exercise.
In agreement with Ling, Marclaren also recognized the need for individual variation in fitness training programs. Furthermore, he documented the importance of progression of exercise Colonial America remained an undeveloped country characterized by much unexplored land and wilderness. Lifestyles during this era consisted largely of plowing the land for crops, hunting for food, and herding cattle This lifestyle provided sufficient levels of physical activity with no additional need or demand for exercise to maintain fitness levels.
Immigrants brought many aspects of their heritage to the United States, including German and Swedish gymnastics. Constant threats to independence and nationalism from foreign invasion were dynamics prevalent in Europe and not the United States. German and Swedish gymnastic programs failed to attain the same levels of popularity as in Europe 9. However, early leaders in the United States were conscious of the need for exercise and fitness.
Benjamin Franklin recommended regular physical activity, including running, swimming, and basic forms of resistance training for health purposes If the body is feeble, the mind will not be strong" Early Physical Education in the United States Within Europe, schools had been an important medium for spreading the need for fitness to society through physical education programs.
However, in the United States, the educational process focused primarily on intellectual matters. Schools concentrated on teaching traditional subjects including reading, writing, and arithmetic. Physical education remained missing from the public education system for the better part of the nineteenth century Despite the relative lack of interest in fitness existing during this era, J.
Warren and Catherine Beecher made significant contributions to the future of fitness in America. Warren, a medical professor at Harvard University, was a major proponent of physical activity. Furthermore, Warren began devising exercises for females 5. Catherine Beecher specifically devised fitness programs to meet the needs of women.
Among her many different programs was a system of calisthenics performed to music 9. Though not formally recognized in name, Beecher's programs of the mid-nineteenth century bear remarkable similarities to modern-day aerobics. Advancement in industrial and mechanical technologies replaced labor-intensive jobs. Rural life changed to an urban lifestyle. The new city life generally required less movement and work compared to rural life, consequently decreasing levels of physical activity.
At the turn of the century, the most common causes of death were from influenza, polio, rubella, and other infectious diseases. Risk of disease and mortality from infectious diseases were alleviated with the discovery of Penicillin.
The cost of industrialization and urbanization became glaringly apparent starting in the s and s. An epidemic of hypokinetic diseases including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and Type II diabetes, never before prevalent, began to be recognized as the leading causes of disease and death The lifestyle improvements brought in part by the Industrial Revolution had apparently come with an unwanted and alarming cost to health.
Individuals who played important roles in the development of fitness during this time period were Edward Hitchcock, William Anderson, and Dudley Sargent. Hitchcock recognized the desired outcome of his fitness programs combination of gymnastics and calisthenics was improved health. He also introduced the concept of utilizing anthropometric measurements to assess fitness progress.
Sargent added scientific research to fitness instruction and developed organized instructor teaching methodologies. The lifetime work of Anderson focused on physical education instruction, with his greatest contribution being its development into a professional organization 5,9, An interesting argument developed during the post-Civil War period that still exists today.
Many physical education instructors believed firmly in the value of incorporating exercise programs that would improve health-related fitness. However, sports were also gaining popularity in the United States during this era. Consequently, the majority of physical education programs focused on sports and games. The debate between health-related fitness and skill-related fitness physical education programs continues to exist 9.
The 20th Century The 20th century symbolized the beginning of a new era of fitness leaders: the Presidents of the United States. Theodore Roosevelt, perhaps the most physically fit President to occupy the oval office, also led the nation into the new century.
He recognized the importance of exercise and physical activity, and had the power to encourage the citizens of America to be physically active. President Roosevelt held an infatuation for fitness similar to the ideology of ancient Greece. His desire for physical fitness evolved out of his childhood battle with asthma, which he overcame with a rigorous exercise program. As President, he engaged in multiple forms of physical activity including hiking, horseback riding, and other outdoor endeavors.
Although not all the presidents following Roosevelt have held fitness in the same high regard, they recognized that the position required a commitment to the fitness of the citizens of the United States With the United States' entry into the battle, hundreds of thousands of military personnel were drafted and trained for combat.
After the war was fought and won, statistics were released from the draft with disturbing data regarding fitness levels. It was found that one out of every three drafted individuals was unfit for combat and many of those drafted were highly unfit prior to military training 5,9. Government legislation was passed that ordered the improvement of physical education programs within the public schools. However, the heightened interest and concern for low fitness levels would be short-lived as the United States entered the s and the Depression.
The Roaring Twenties and Great Depression Heightened interest in fitness dissipated throughout the decade. A pattern that had been familiar throughout history is that after a war is fought and won, the tendency is for society to relax, enjoy life, and exercise less.
The Roaring Twenties earned the label for a reason, as society lived more frivolously than at any other time in history. Priorities centered on eating, drinking, partying, and other forms of entertainment In October of , the stock market crashed, signaling the beginning of what would be a decade of economic depression.
Along with many other aspects of life, fitness levels declined during the Depression. The gains that physical education programs made through the passage of legislation following the WW I were short-lived. Funding for these programs became limited and eventually was exhausted as emphasis in the poor economy was forced to shift elsewhere 15, Despite the setbacks which fitness suffered during the Great Depression, Jack LaLanne, who would eventually be recognized as a guiding pioneer of fitness, began his lifetime career as a media fitness instructor.
Throughout his life, LaLanne preached the value of preventive lifestyle habits. LaLanne developed fitness programs including aerobics, water aerobics, and resistance exercise. He also introduced numerous pieces of exercise equipment including the first cable-pulley machine, the safety system for doing squats called the Smith machine, and the first leg extension machine.
Though LaLanne preceded the modern fitness movement by some three decades, his fitness ideology and exercise programs were correct in approach when judged by modern research. World War II Throughout world history, military conflicts have had major impacts on the state of fitness.
Essentially, the modern fitness movement evolved out of the influence of World War II and subsequent development of the Cold War. With the declaration of war came the necessity to draft military personnel. However, as more men were drafted, it became embarrassingly clear that many of them were not fit for combat.
When the war was over, it was reported that nearly half of all draftees needed to be rejected or were given non-combat positions These disturbing statistics helped gain the attention of the country with regards to the importance of fitness. Important contributions to fitness came during the s, specifically from Dr. Thomas K. Cureton at the University of Illinois. Cureton introduced the application of research to fitness, which improved exercise recommendations to individuals.
Cureton not only recognized the numerous benefits of regular exercise, he strived to expand the body of knowledge regarding physical fitness. He wanted to answer questions such as how much exercise was healthy and what types of exercise were most effective.
More importantly, Cureton wanted to know how physical fitness could best be measured within an individual. Among his most important contributions were developing fitness tests for cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, and flexibility. His research resulted in multiple recommendations for the improvement of cardiorespiratory fitness, including the identification of exercise intensity guidelines necessary for improved fitness levels. His suggestions became the fundamental basis behind future exercise programs This study utilized the Kraus-Weber tests to measure muscular strength and flexibility in the trunk and leg muscles.
It was reported that close to 60 percent of American children failed at least one of the tests. In comparison, only nine percent of children from European countries failed one of the tests.
During the Cold War, these startling numbers launched political leaders into action to promote health and fitness. Out of these meetings came two important results: 1 the formation of the President's Council on Youth Fitness and 2 the appointment of the President's Citizens Advisory Committee on the Fitness of American Youth During the s, numerous organizations took initiative in educating the general public about the consequences of low fitness levels. These organizations would provide merit and legitimacy to the coming fitness movement.
The American College of Sports Medicine ACSM was formed in , and has proved to be one of the premier organizations in the promotion of health and fitness to American society and worldwide. Throughout its history, ACSM has established position stands on various exercise-related issues based on scientific research.
Kennedy was a major proponent of fitness and its health-related benefits to the American people. He furthered the development of the Presidents Council on Youth Fitness, appointing Bud Wilkinson as head of the council. The name was also changed to the President's Council on Physical Fitness.
Kennedy spoke openly about the need for American citizens to improve their fitness levels, including writing an article in Sports Illustrated entitled "The Soft American. Kennedy prompted the federal government to become more involved in national fitness promotion and started youth pilot fitness programs. Kennedy's commitment to fitness can best be summarized when he said, "Physical fitness is the basis for all other forms of excellence.
Ken H. Cooper, widely recognized as "The Father of the Modern Fitness Movement", is generally credited with encouraging more individuals to exercise than any other individual in history. Cooper advocated a philosophy that shifted away from disease treatment to one of disease prevention.
Early in his career, Cooper stressed the necessity for providing epidemiological data to support the benefits of regular exercise and health. Data from thousands of individuals became the foundation for his aerobic concepts.
Aerobics, released in , sent a powerful message to the American people - to prevent the development of chronic diseases, exercise regularly and maintain high fitness levels throughout life Lessons From History The history of fitness portrays some fascinating themes that relate closely to the 21st century.
Other accounts of Dr Ling's practice and philosophies were published: a Handbook of Medical Gymnastics English edition, by Anders Wide of Stockholm represents the more conservative practice. George H. The Father of Gymnastics. Newman responsible for PE in schools began to express some disquiet about Swedish Gymnastics, he described it as boring.
He taught hundreds of students who were in a mass floor exercise. Swedish Gymnastics and the German Turnen organisations were a foundation from which the scientific discipline of Sport and Exercise Science and the Physical Education profession emerged. These pupils were Lars Gabriel Branting — , who succeeded Ling as principal of the Institute; August Georgii, who became sub-director of the Institute; and his own son, Hjalmar Ling — The Early Modern Gym Per Henrik Ling In which European nation did school gymnastics begin with these characteristics: exercise hall required; trained instructors; one class period per day; grades given; adapted to age levels; and for boys and girls?
Ling, the founder of Swedish gymnastics : his life, his work and his importance by Westerblad, C. Swedish Gymnastics. From the mid-nineteenth century to the opening decades of the 20th, Swedish and Turner gymnastics were the most popular systems in gymnasiums.
They depict wild animals such as elk, reindeer, bears and seals. The Swedish "light gymnastics" used no apparatus, consisting of calisthenics and exercises. A representative of the latter, more extreme section was Henrik Kellgren — , who had a special school and following. Forth and back the stair also a 45 inclined one. In , Ling left Sweden and lived abroad and traveled for seven years. He then outlined a system of gymnastics, exercises, and maneuvers divided into four branches: pedagogical, medical, military, and aesthetic, which carried out his theories and demonstrated the scientific rigor to be integrated or approved by established medical practitioners.
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